Mongolian Spirit and Hazaras

Introduction

Hazaras are the largest Mongolian population outside of the Mongolia. Hazaras are also called Turko-Mongols or Persianized Turks. It all comes fit to describe Hazaras because no one can delineate among Mongols, Turks, Tartars, Uyghur and other tribes living the vast steppes, mountain ranges and Tundra of central Asia. The nomadic life styles and alliances during wars mixed these nations to a degree that clear distinction is impossible. The current divisions based on the nation states, like Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia,…… and possibly Hazarajat is more geographical nationalities. Truly they belong to a single civilization, known as Altaic Civilization. The Altaic civilization is a basis of future regional alliance like European Union, ASIAN.

Before analyzing the Hazaragi culture, political, social and economical structures, it is necessary to know the historical spirits that they have inherited from their ancestors. One should be careful in applying these spirits into modern Hazara society because Hazara society is very dynamic and changes frequently. Today's Hazaras unlike their Shaman ancestors are dominantly Shia Muslim however, one cant ignore the links and openess of Hazara spirit with nature.

Mongolian Spirit:

1. Mongolia is an isolated, land-locked country in the heart of central Asia. In north, vast Siberain forests, in south, vast Gobi desert and in west, two mighty mountains Altai and Tien Shen isolate Mongolian Plateau from the rest of the world. Exterme cold and hot weathers and harsh landscapes of desert, steppe, forests and mountains make it inhospitable. Despite these geographical disadvantages and natural barriers, Mongol spirit blew westward, southward and northward to unite all nations by first globalization.

2. Shamanism was the core of Mongolian world perspective. The sky, Sun, stars, mountains, rivers and simply nature had spirits that Mongols were praying and talking to. The highest among spirit was the spirit of sky that is over everything. Sky and nature accompany anywhere you go. It was the basis of the global thinking in Mongolian mindset.

3. Though Mongolians embraced all religions and their followers but they had their own interpretations of these religions based on sprits of nature.

4. The nature was leading their movements (nomadic life style) and wealth and knowledge were their main attraction. There were no natural barriers for them. The only thing that stopped them was poverty and ignorance. They conquered every kingdom with wealth and knowledge and stopped where these two things were absent.

5. Color and race were not important to Mongols. What was important to them was loyalty so they included people from all races into their family that they annexed to Mongolian empire.

Mongols tried to create a single nation out of all races. The Turko-Mongol people living in central Asia, Urdu or Hindi speaking people in South Asia (India and Pakistan) and Hazaras living in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran and also in scattered populations in Central Asia and Australia is examples of new nations out of these efforts.

There were three ways that people become part of Mongolian family. Firstly called, Quda, means by marriage, second was by sworn brotherhood which is called, Anda and thirdly by friendship which is called, Nokor. So the doors of Mongolians were open for all who were wishing to be part of it.

6. Skills and meritocracy was the core in the Mongolian empire. In their attacks they were looking for skilled and educated men and women and were using their skills and benefit the empire. People with skills and knowledge were promoted to the higher ranks, irrespective of their race, color and religion.

7. Xenophobia was alien to Mogolians. It was the main reason that a small nation of Mongolia could conquer the populous nation of China and vast lands of central Asia and Middle East. The numbers of soldiers from other nations outnumbered the actual Mongolian soldiers in Mongolian army.

The spirit of Hazaras:

There are few books and articles about social structures and behaviors of Hazaras which, when I study, as a member of Hazara nation, looks totally alien to me. This made me write down the real spirit of Hazaras so the researchers and writers interested in Hazara culture, social, economical and political structures have a better understanding when analyzing Hazara society.
Main confusions about Hazaras:

1. The collapse of social, economical and political structure after the 1885 invasion of Hazarajat by Afghan incursion, Hazaras went to the fringe of political, social and economical life of Afghanistan.

In fact, it was the collapse of Hazara society to push them to bottom of the social life among other nations but the intentional isolation of Hazara society, denial of education, trade and participation in politics that made them out of an active role in Afghanistan. We observe the significant educational and trade achievements of Hazara society in Baluchistan province of Pakistan at the same time that Hazaras were living in at fringe Afghani society.

2. It is the 1885 invasion of Hazarajat and following oppression of Hazaras that Hazaras migrated to Iran, India at that time and later on to Pakistan, Central Asia and recently to Europe, Canada and Australia.

Hazaras, with a spirit of globalization that they have inherited from their Buddhist and later on Mongolian ancestry were never stopped moving across the borders in search of wealth and knowledge. Poverty and ignorance is the only barrier for movement of Hazaras. It was Mongolian who started the process of globalization by connecting Asia, Africa and Europe and since those times that never ceased movements though their movements reduced by new political, economical and military developments across the world.

3. Hazaras is an ethnic group.

Hazaras are not an ethnic group. Hazaras is a nation that is not based on ethnicity. As I mentioned in part of Mongolian spirit, that they were including people of all races in the empire into Mongolian family to make them part of Mongolian nation. This process is not stopped among Hazaras. In Hazarajat you will find Baluchis (In Kijran), Pashtoons (Members of Yusufzai tribe), Qizilbash, Uzbeks, shi'it Tajiks as part of Hazaras nation. The same process is in Quetta of Baluchistan province. People across Pakistan, from Kashmir, Gilgit, Baltistan, Parachinar, Kurram Agency, Peshawar, to Punjabis, Sindhis, Baluchis, to Zabulis and Kandaharis are becoming part of Hazara society and Hazara nation. Hazaras is a historical spirit that embraces multiculturalism and never ceases nation building process. Hazaras have still preserved the Mogolian concepts of Quda (relationship by marriage), Anda (realtionship by sworn brotherhood) and Nokor (relationship by friendship). When a girl and boy marry their parents call each other Quda-ghu which means members of family and it is still alive in Hazaragi culture even in Quetta, Pakistan. Similarly, Hazaras have still preserved the traditions of sworn brotherhood and sisterhood and Hazaras are known in their loyalty in friendship across the cultural, religious, lingual and national boundaries.

4. Hazaras have a historical hatred and rivalry to Pashtoons.

It is the largest confusion about the Hazaras. Xenophobia is alien to Hazara society. Hazaras are massacred, their lands are confiscated, they forcefully migrated. Hazaras have been facing the worst kinds of discriminations that still continues. Ceratinly these discriminations cause bitter feelings among Hazaras but it is not the result of Xenophobia. People confuse the feelings resulted from discrimination and xenophobia. Discriminations is unacceptable to Hazaras as well as Xenophobia.

5. Hazarajat is a land-locked, isolated and composed of inhospitable narrow valleys that is not a viable country. The people were looking the same way to Mongolia before Genghis Khan. The Chinese emperror mocked Genghis Khan by saying that China is as vast as Ocean.


Note: This article is still under construction. Your comments, suggestions and critics are welcome.

Climate change and risks of extinction

Background:

Extinction is as important in biology as mortality rate. There are two kinds of extinction that have been identified in biological history, mass extinction and background extinction. Usually the focus of studies is mass extinction; however ecologists are more concerned about background extinction that is an ongoing process. There are several questions in extinction that is needed to be explored in conservation of species. Is extinction selective or not? What aspects of biological spheres are under selective pressure of extinction? And why do species extinct? There are several kinds of extinction selections like introduction of invasive species, Habitat loss, over-exploitation, climate change and pollution. Here in this knol, I have selected Climate change as it is affecting all biomes and its rates are rapidly increasing. I have highlighted the areas that are currently under risks of extinction due to climate change pressures ranging from Polar Bears, Penguins, Amphibians, Royal Tiger and Pollinators.

I. Introduction:

It seems that the two processes of speciation and extinction are balancing each other, however when we look at numbers of both processes, it creates doubts. Though fossil record is not complete but it is grossly estimated that there have been 4 billion speciation, in evolutionary history of life, out of which only 4 millions species are alive today. It means 3.996 X 109 species have extinct in evolutionary history of life (D. Raup, 1991). In 1994, Raup in his famous paper, “The role of extinction in evolution”, which is published in National Academy of Science, argued that ignoring extinction for an evolutionary biologist is as for a demographer to ignore mortality rate. Whenever there are discussions on extinction, people usually refer and think to mass extinctions, especially big five mass extinctions. Table. 1, compares big five mass extinctions.

The figures of extinctions in big five mass extinctions seem impressive as they are occurring in short time intervals and eliminating form 75% to 95% of existing species. Though extinctions in these events are impressive but they are collectively making only 4% of the total extinction over past 600 million years.

David Raup (D. Raup et al, 1994) has calculated the extinction rate and found that the extinction rate is 25% per million and mean species duration is 4 million years. The comparison of extinction by mass extinction and background extinction is important because mass extinction are usually considered as a result of sudden changes in environment but the background extinction is the result of constant changes in environment. Hence background extinction is important for ecologist to understand.

Some published estimates of mass extinction (Different authors differs in their estimates based on their subjects)

(1) 15 million years : Raup, D.M. and J.J. SEPKOSKI, JR. 1982. Mass extinctions in the marine fossil record. Science 215:1501-1503

(2) 10 million years : HOUSE, M.R. 1967. Fluctuations in evolution of paleozoic invertebrates. Pp. 41-54. In HARLAND, W.B., C.H. HOLLAND, M.R. HOUSE, N.F. HUGHES, A.B. REYNOLDSS, M.J.S. RUDWICK. G.E. SATTERTHWAITE, L.B.H. TARLO, AND E.G. WILEY, (eds.), The fossil record. The Geological Society of London: london.

(3) 8 million years: FARSAN, N.M. 1986. Fransian mass extinction - a single catastrophic event or cumulative? Pp. 198-197. In Walliser, O.H. (ed.), Global Bio-Events: a critical appraoch. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences 8. Springer-Verag: Berlin.

(4) 7 million years: McGHEE, G. R., JR. 1982 The Fransian-Famennian extinction event: a preliminary analysis of Appalachian marine ecosystems. Geological Society of America Special Paper 190:491-500.

(5) 3 to 5 million years: COPPER, P. 1984. Cold water oceans and the Fransian-Famennian extinction crisis. Geological Society of America Abstracts with program 16:10.

(6) 1 million year: ZIEGLER, W. 1984. Conodonts and Frasnian/Famennian crisis. Geological Society of America Abstracts with program 16: 73.

(7) 0.5 million year: SORAUF, J.E. AND A.E.H. PEDDER. 1984. Rugose corals and the Frasnian- Famennian boundary. Geological Society of America America Abstracts with program 16:64.

After D. Raup, et al. 1994

Once it is established that background extinction is more important than mass extinction then the second question arises that is extinction indifferent or selective? If it is selective then which group of organisms is at greater risks of extinction?

Paleobiologists have tried to establish a link between selectivity of extinction over taxonomic, specific traits and species levels. There is quiet small difference in selectivity across taxonomic level, however there is strong selectivity for specific traits like, widespread geographical distributions, body size along with long generation size. Jablonski, (Jablonski, 1986) showed that in background marine mollusks with planktonic larvae survive longer than those develop from egg. Mollusks with planktonic larvae have greater dispersal abilities and as a result higher survival capabilities to stresses than species with limited dispersal capabilities. Similarly there are enough evidence exists of extinction of organisms with large body sizes like, Dinosaurs, ammonites, eurypterids, mammoths, mastodons and rudist clams(LaBarbera et al, 1986). Simpson have also suggests that mammals with long generation times suffered greater extinction in latest Pleistocene because natural selection could not operate quickly enough for adaptation to changing climatic conditions.

Now that it is established that extinction is somehow selective then, a third and more related question come arise and that is why do species become extinct? There are three points of views among evolutionary biologists mostly based on the philosophical predisposition,

i. Extinction occur because of inferior adaptations(Invasive species replace native species)

ii. Bad luck (Habitat loss due to volcanism, continental drift, climate change and sea level rise)

iii. The red queen hypothesis of L.Van Valen, “It takes all the running you can do just to stay in place” Or antagonistic interaction: If one organism improves adaptation, it forces other related organisms to improve adaptations. For example, if one organisms improve a trait that make it able to successfully avoid predators, then the natural selection pressure increases on others and forces them to improve their traits.

Now, that we have established from life history that constant extinction is more important than sudden extinctions, there is some selectivity in extinction and there are different causes that organisms go extinct so let’s see the current trends of extinction under anthropogenic climate change.

II. Climate Change?

We can be skeptic about the climate change controversies that arise from time to time but still there are certain areas that there is a common census. Vitousek has identified three such areas that are well documented and is beyond the doubt. The first is increasing concentration of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, second is alteration in the biogeochemistry of nitrogen cycle and third that is ongoing land use/land cover change (Vitousek et al,. 1994). Though Vitousek didn't include the human in his list but the human population growth is beyond doubt both in numbers and in effect on the climate so we can include it as fourth factor.

Though climate change is not new for current biological populations and they have seen the fluctuating glacial, interglacial and little ice age for last since Pleistocene period. However the current anthropogenic climate change is different from several perspectives. In past climate changes, human weren't in direct competitions for same resources to natural world, the rate of climate changes were not rapid as today, species had space for movements in response to climate change. Species had not lost genetic diversities to the rates they are losing due to massive hunting, introduction of invasive species, habitat loss, introductions of pests, herbicides and pollution and human barriers in their routes of migration, etc.

III. Why we should care about global Change

The lists of impacts on human by the human caused climate change are very long. I would like to mention a few of them so it make us realize that, why anthropogenic climate change should be a matter of concern for us. Climate change may affect the ecosystems which provide essential services to human like, key nutrient cycles (Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle), maintaining air quality, food, fuel, raw resources for numerous industries, medicines, new compounds, pests and diseases, etc. The ecosystem services is not limited only to physical, chemical and biological services but also provide aesthetic, tourisms, cultural and spiritual services. Following we give some reports from UN and WWF, so we could sense, how much the issue on hands is serious.

A. Millennium Ecosystem Report (2005);

Few important points related to biodiversity that is notable in the report of Millennium Ecosystem Report (2005) under title of, "Ecosystems and human well-being" is as follows,

1. Figure 3.10 under title of "Main direct drivers", has compared the impacts of habitat change, climate change, invasive species, over-exploitation and pollution (nitrogen, phosphorus) on biodiversity. This comparison reveals that the impact in each biome including forest (boreal, temperate, and tropical), dry land (temperate grassland, Mediterranean, tropical grassland and savanna, desert), inland water, coastal, marine, island, mountain, island, mountain and polar environments are compared. It is interesting to note that the impact of climate change vary across the biomes from high to low but there is very rapid increase of the climate change on all biomes.

2. Figure 1, of this report shows that the rate of extinction is increasing with passing times. Figure 1, under title of, "Species extinction per thousand species per millennium" the rate of extinction of almost all major organism have compared based on fossil record (for distant past), known extinction (for recent past) and modeled prediction for future extinction. Fossil record shows for every thousand mammal species, less than one went extinct every millennium. Current extinction rate is up to thousand times higher than the fossil record. Projected future extinction rate is more than ten times higher than current rate.

3. Table 2.2. Trends in the Human Use of Ecosystem Services and Enhancement or Degradation of the Service around the Year 2000,

a. Global: In the middle of last century terrestrial ecosystems were turned from a net source of Co2 into a net sink. The land cover use increasing albedo effect, which contrary to Co2 emissions caused the world temperature do not increase much due to greenhouse effect.

b. Regional: Though land cover use have affect local and regional climate in both positive and negative directions, however the negative impact is higher like tropical deforestation and desertification have overall reduced the rainfall (humidity and temperatures are directly proportional).

c. Pollination: Globally the population of pollinators has declined except of Antarctica, which lack pollinators. The decrease of pollinators have caused decline in number of seed and fruit productions. The decline of pollinators has also affected the reproduction of some rare plants.

B. Living Planet Report 2008:

Several points that World Wildlife Fund in its 2008, "Living Planet Report 2008" point out is eye opening. The living planet index shows that over the past 35 years alone the Earth's wildlife populations have declined by a third. Human global footprint now exceeds the world's capacity to regenerate by about 30 per cent. For the first time in recorded history, this past summer (2008) the Arctic ice cap was surrounded by open water-literally disappearing under the impact of our carbon footprint. The Living Planet Report 2008 tells us that more than three quarters of the world's people live in nations that are ecological debtors- their national consumptions has outstripped their country's biocapacity.

IV. Risks of extinctions:

According to The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)’S 2004 Red List, 15,589 species of animals and plants are threatened to extinction in near future due to human activity – one of these human activities is human caused climate change. The order of threatened species is amphibian species 32% (one in three), mammal species 24% (one in four), bird species 12% (one in eight), Conifer species 25% (one in four) and Cycads 52% (IUCN Red List,2004). This high rate of extinction as also compared to five mass extinction in geological times and it is why sometimes referred as 6th mass extinction but it is some sort of overstatement as human is aware of their impacts and working for the conservation of threatened species which is though controversial but is progressing.

A. Arctic Polar Bears

Cold regions are very sensitive to temperature rise. Arctic is believed to be twice and thrice sensitive to climate change than other parts of the world. Organisms that have adapted to these cold regions are also sensitive to temperature rise. In Arctic region, Polar bears is thought to be threatened by climatic warming, esp of warming of air in late spring (April-June). As the sea ice melts in this time period, it limits the movements of bears and hence declines the chances of mating and hunting. Derocher has concluded that polar bears are unlikely to survive (Derocher, A.E., Lunn, N.J., Stirling, I., 2004. Polar bears in a warming climate. Integr. Comp. Biol. 44, 163–176) however, Dyck and co-authors contradict with this view and they think that there is no climatic warming since last 70 years around Hudson bay area and what others have considered as warming is part of arctic variability (Dyck et al, 2007).

Image source:http://legalplanet.files.wordpress.com/2009/05/polar-bear.jpg

B. Antarctic Penguins:

Like Polar bears of arctic, the Penguins of the Antarctica is also threatened to extinction. According WWF Antarctic Climate Change Focal Project (ACCFP)'s report, "impacts of 2C global warming on Antarctica penguins", 50% of the colonies of the iconic Emperor penguin and 75% Adelie penguin colonies face marked decline or disappearance if global temperature is allowed to rise 2°C above preindustrial levels.

C. Amphibians:

The hotspot group is amphibians that are concerned about mostly due to their current rate of extinction. Pound reports extinction and declines of many cloud-forest amphibians on a mountain in Costa Rica (Pounds et al.1999,2005). Malcolm has compared the current rate of mass extinction of amphibians with their background rate of extinction and found that Amphibian’s current rate of extinction is 211 times of their background extinction (Malcolm et al., 2007). Stuart estimates that almost a third of amphibians are threatened with extinction (Stuart et al., 2004) and Pounds considers one of the causes among others is climate change (Pounds and Crump, 1994; Pounds et al., 1999).

D. Sundarban Mangroves and Royal Tigers:

Panthera Tigris is the only tiger species that have adapted to live in Mangrove forest. The Mangrove forest of Sundarbans is the home of this Mangrove tigers. Over 10,000 Km2 of Sundarban, 6000 Km2 is in Bangladesh and the rest is in India. This mongrove forest which lies on Southern fringe of Ganges Delta supports a rich fauna and flora. Rahman (Rahman et al., 2000) reported that the Mangrove forest which is composed of 401,600 ha in land and remaining 175,400 ha, under the water in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few meters to several kilometers supports different species of about 334 plants, 120 fishes, 35 reptiles, 270 birds and 42 mammals. The Sundarbans is the only habitat of the famous Royal Bengal Tiger and estuarine crocodile.

Loucks and colleagues (Louks et al,. 2010) of World Wildlife Fund estimated that with a 28 cm rise above 2000 sea levels, remaining tiger habitat in Bangladesh’s Sundarbans would decline by 96% and the number of breeding individuals would be reduced to less than 20. They Assumed that current sea-level rise predictions and local conditions do not change, a 28 cm sea level rise is likely to occur in the next 50–90 years. If actions to both limit green house gas emissions and increase resilience of the Sundarbans are not initiated soon, the tigers of the Sundarbans may join the Arctic’s polar bears (Ursus maritimus) as early victims of climate change-induced habitat loss. It is noticeable that globally, sea level has increased by 1.8 ± 0.5 mm year−1 from 1961 to 2003, but 3.1 ± 0.7 mm year−1 from 1993 to 2003 (Bindoff et al. 2007).

Image Source:http://www.earthweek.com/online/ew070511/ew070511c.jpg

E. North Western Hawaiian endemic and endangered species:

Hawaiian Monk Seal is one of the rarest marine mammals in the world. There are only 1300 individuals mainly in the 6 NWHI subpopulations (Carretta et al, 2006). Hawaiian Monk Seal is listed as endangered species under US Endangered Species Act 1973.

Another threatened species that is listed in US Endangered Species Act is Hawaiian green sea turtles. Although the range of Hawaiian green turtle covers the entire Hawaiian archipelago but French Frigate Shoals, one of the NWHI atolls is the home for the 90% breeding female nest. The sandy beaches of these islands provide protection from waves and sharks and an easy access to ocean (Westlake and Gil martin, 1990).

Adding to list are the vulnerable Laysan (phoebastria immutabilis) and endangered black-footed albatross (P. nigrispes), according to IUCN, whose nesting occur entirely in NWHI (Harrison, 1990). The NWHI are the habitat for some 14 million sea birds of 18 species (Harrison, 1990). NWHI also have endemic species including 4 land bird species, 3 terrestrial species, 12 plant species and over 60 species of terrestrial arthropods (Canont et al, 1984).

As we mentioned earlier the sea level is rising. Sea level rose up around 15 cm in twentieth century (Ruddiman, 2001) because of melting of ice at poles and glaciers and also thermal expansion of the ocean.

F. Coral Reefs:

The most evident effects of the rapidly increasing levels of Co2 in the atmosphere is increase in average global temperature, rise in sea levels and acidification of oceans. The Co2 is dissolvable in water and oceans have dissolved 25% (2.2 Pg C/year) of Co2 that is emitted as a result of human activity. The Co2 dissolved in ocean makes carbonic acid which dissolve the coral reefs (Coral reefs are made of up carbonate shelled organisms and their deposits and carbonate fizz out in dilute acid). This reef degradation as a result of acidification along with decline in herbivorous fish and nutrient loading are causing coral reefs shift to algal dominated systems.

G. Global vegetation distribution:

In 1967 the botanist, R. L. Holdridge sketched the global distribution of plant communities solely based on the climate considering that temperature and rainfall is the dominant factors relative to soil composition and altitudes, acidity etc (though these factors are important determinants in local distribution of vegetation). Holdridge's scheme is known as Holdridge life zone model and it is still widely used especially in comparison with other models to determine or predict the effects of climate change on the vegetative distribution.

After Holdridge 1967

Image Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lifezones_Pengo.svg#filelinks

Though the effect of the climate change on the distribution is not fully understood but still several factors are evident. The current global warming is largely caused by green house gases emitted by human activity. The most important green house gas is CO2. Vegetation is not only sensitive to warming caused by increasing concentrations of CO2 in atmosphere but also to CO2 itself as CO2 is one of the important nutrients. Concentrations of CO2 are especailly important for aquatic photosynthetic species and may cause eutrophication in lakes (if Nitrogen and phosphorus are sufficient).

H. Plant and insect interactions:

In 1998, Coviella and Trumble wrote a review paper under title "effects of elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide on insect-plant interactions" and they have listed the researches have done on specific plant-insect interactions. They have argued that there are limited researches available on this issue however it is certain that increased level of CO2 and temperature is species specific so it is expected to vary a lot across species. However it is evident that increased levels of CO2 favor C3 photosynthetic plants over C4 photosynthetic plants. This selective favorability of increased CO2 also affects insects’ dependant on the specific plants.

I. Phenological Changes and decline in Pollinators:

Plants, insects and birds are sensitive in certain times of their life history to temperature and humidity and also depend on each other’s life histories. Due climate change the plants tend to bloom earlier. This earlier blooming causes a mismatch between appearances of pollinators. The late arrival of pollinators (compared to early blooms of plants) cost pollinators with less food and plants with less seed. Decline in number of seed and pollinator insect which are food sources for birds, affect bird populations.

D. Inouye (Inouye et al, 2008) have linked several points to Phenological changes in Perennial herbaceous wildflower species at Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (Colorado, USA), a. timing of snow melt, b. snow cap size, and c. elevation. Date of snow melts are important to number of flowers in summer. Small snow caps lead to early blooming and risks of frost damage. He also found that difference of 12 meters in elevation resulted in 2 degree of Celsius difference and 37% frost damage to buds. The number of flowers and seed is very important as less flowers and seed results decline in populations.

J. Paleoecological studies;

Margaret Davis of University of Minnesota and her colleague, in a review paper in 2005 argued that Paleoecologists looked to evolution as a mismatch to climate change. "Evolution is too slow as compared to climate change so primary biotic response to climate change is not "adaptation", but instead (1) persistence in situ if climate remains within species tolerance limits, (2) range shifts (migration) to regions where climate is currently within the species' tolerance limits, or (3) extinction".

She argues that, all these processes are evolutionary responses which are accompanied by shifts in biotic ranges during climate change. The evolutionary responses of plants differs greatly as herbs response in decades and trees respond in centuries and millennia (Margaret et al,2005).

A series of populations of Lodgepole pine (pinus contorta), were progressively lossing alleles when migrating northward in Holocene in Western Canada as a response to climate warming. This allele loss is determined by help of allozymes (Cwynar and MacDonald 1987).

Trees show different levels of adaptation as a response to climate change, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) have adapted to diverse elevations and altitudes of Finland over past several thousand years. This area was covered with continental ice until mid-Holocene (Hurme et al.1997). While Introduced herbaceous species in North America and Europe show genetic variation in response to climate within decades or a century for example, Verbascum thapsus, Reinartz 1984, Daucus carota, Lacey 1988: Solidago sp, (Weber and Schmid 1998).

Short tailed albatross is listed as a vulnerable species according to ICUN red list because it is it still has a very small breeding range, limited to Torishima and Minami-kojima (Senkaku Islands) with approximate populations of 2500 individuals. Oslon and Hearty (2003) have reported based on their conclusion of possible extinction of short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) colony during Pleistocene sea level rise in Atlantic ocean.

References:

Ainley, D., Russell, J. and Jenouvrier, S. 2008. The fate of Antarctic penguins when Earth’s tropospheric temperature reaches 20°C above preindustrial levels: www.panda.org/antarctica.

Baillie, E.M., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N (editors) (2004). 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. A Global Species Assessment. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

Colby Loucks · Shannon Barber-Meyer · Md. Abdullah Abraham Hossain ·Adam Barlow · Ruhul Mohaiman Chowdhury, Sea level rise and tigers: predicted impacts to Bangladesh’s Sundarbans mangroves, Climatic Change (2010) 98:291–298 DOI 10.1007/s10584-009-9761-5.

Coviella, C. and J. Trumble. 1999. Effects of elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide on insectplant interactions. Conserv. Biol. 13:700-712.

DAVID M. RAuP, The role of extinction in evolution, Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 91, pp. 6758-6763, July 1994, Colloquium Paper.

Laskar Muqsudur Rahman, The Sundarbans: A unique Wilderness of the world, USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-15-VOL-2. 2000

LaBarbera, M. (1986) in Patterns and Processes in the History of Life, eds. Raup, D. M. & Jablonski, D. (Springer-Veriag, Berlin), pp. 69-98.

Margaret B. Davis, Ruth G. Shaw, and Julie R. Etterson, Evolutionary responses to changing climate, Ecology, 86 (7), 2005, pp. 1704-1714, Ecological Society of America.

Malcolm L. McCallum, 2007, Amphibian decline or extinction? Current declines dwarf background extinction rate, Journal of Herpetology, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 483–491, Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.

M.G. Dyck , W. Soon, R.K. Baydack , D.R. Legates , S. Baliunas, T.F. Ball e, L.O. Hancock, 2007, Polar bears of western Hudson Bay and climate change:Are warming spring air temperatures the ‘‘ultimate’’ survival control factor?, ecological complexity, 4 (2 0 07 ) 73 – 8 4.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.

POUNDS, J. A., M. P. FOGDEN, AND J. H. CAMPBELL. 1999. Biological response to climate change on a tropical mountain. Nature 398:611–615.

Raup, David M. Extinction: Bad Genes or Bad Luck? W.W. Norton and Company. New York. 1991. pp.3-6 ISBN 978-0393309270

STUART, S. N., J. S. CHANSON, N. A. COX, B. E. YOUNG, A.S. L. RODRIGUES, D. L. FISCHMAN, AND R. W. WALLER. 2004. Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide. Science 306:1783–1786. 2005. Response to comment on ‘‘Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide.’’ Science 309:1999c.

Simpson, G. G. (1944) Tempo and Mode in Evolution (Columbia Univ. Press, New York).

Olson SL, Hearty pj (2003) probable extirpatio of a breeding colony of short-tailed Abatross (Phoebastria albatrus) on Bermuda by Pleistocene sea level rise. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:12825-12829.

Vitousek. P.M., (1994), "Beyond global warming; Ecology and Global Change", Ecology, 75(7).pp.1861-1876. 

Interesting Times; The divorce between Capitalism and Democracy

The rise of China as an economic power with a single party government have put BIG question marks to a wide range of systems. Some of former Soviet Union administrators had frequently expressed their regrets (Please watch the video provided at the end of this Knol for one of expressions) that the decisions were made in hurry without investing much thinking in it. China has not only escaped a collapse but instead soar in global arena. It an open secret that the rise of China was not because of changes in political system but was rather achieved by economic reforms. This is a very clear demonstration that economy is more crucial in stability than politics. Soviet Union tried to solve an economic problem by a political reforms/transitions and the results were disastrous not only for Russia and other central Asian states but also on South Asia, Middle East and on West equally. After more than a decade of terrorism and "counter-terrorism" wars and global economic melt down people have just realized that Soviet Union was actually a shield of stability.

By expressing regrets nothing change but it seems that world is not ready to learn from past experiences. What is happening in the Middle East is the repetition of the same mistake. So called "Arab Spring" started because of deepening economic disparity in the Arab World, especially in North Africa but the solutions are coming as political. Does political changes have the capacity to solve the economic problems? The Soviet and Chinese models are providing a very clear answer to the question.

Of course, the opposite is also true. If there is a genuine political problem like a cultural group wanting self-determination then economic solutions might work for short time period but on long, political problems are only solved by political solutions. This is what happening in Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Iraq for example.

I think, European Union is also learning from China. Europe in general like to present herself as capitalist democracy but the economic crises have pushed Europe to make exceptions/undermine democratic values and to go for tough austerity measures. People have to bear the costs of economic experiments.

The Occupy Wall Street movements in USA and the police responses to them do not make much sense in a democratic country. This is not a movement against state or system but a collision between people and corporations. People think that their rights have been undermined by corporations' undemocratic influences over state.

Until now, it was believed that one of the biggest causes of Persian, Turk, Mongol and Arab empires to collapse was the absence of corporations. The absence of corporations not only made the economic successes short lived but with no big impacts on society in general. So despite of having oldest and long periods, the people of these empires had not benefited from them and are now counted as third world countries. I agree with this point of view. On other hand we are also witnessing that corporations on long run do not allow democracy to function properly.

In short, democracy have been undermined by economic systems whether it was by one party system or by corporations. The Success of Chinese model and undermining of democracy by corporations have soured the relationship of capitalism and democracy. Slavoj Zizek terms it as a divorce between capitalism and democracy and of course it is interesting to see how this relationship will go....

Following is Slavoj Zizek' interview with Aljzeera. It looked interesting to me, you might also like it as we all need fresh eyes to look at what are happening around us...

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Geographical origins of ancient civilizations

(This is an unfinished knol)

Background:
- The first human civilizations originated at Tropic of Cancer.
- Most land area in tropic of cancer is desert or semi-desert area.
- There are three main types of plate boundaries, convergent, divergent and transform fault. It is interesting to note that,
+ Masopotamia originated along Euphrates-Tigris rivers flowing from mountain chains, created as a result of transform plate boundary.
+ Indus Civilizations originated along Indus-Ganges rivers, flowing from mountain chains, created as a result of convergent plate boundary.
+ Ancient Egyptian Civilization originated along Nile river, flowing from mountain chains as a result of divergent plate boundary.

Tropic of Cancer:
It is an imaginary line, runs around the globe at 23.5 degree of equator in northern hemisphere. In tropic of cancer, the sun is directly overhead at noon, on 21st June and 21 August. It is the hot and arid zone. The seasonal changes is slight year around. Why tropic of cancer is hot and dry with less seasonal change. Just a glance on the atmospheric currents makes clear everything.

Diagram Source: http://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/images/AtmosphCirc2.png
If you look at diagram above, the winds take the humdity of the tropics and carry them to northern temperate regions and middle equatorial regions and so cause raining in those regions. In simple words the winds from temperate and equatorial regions steal humidity of tropics and turn these regions into desert or semi-arid regions.

Geography of ancient civilizations:

It is not accidental that earliest human civilizations, Mesopotamia, Indus valley civilization and Egyptian Civilizations were emerged on the Tropic of Cancer. In the second phase the next two major civilizations, Chinese and earliest Greek ones appeared in the vicinity of Tropic of Cancer further north. In third phase, human spread southward towards equator but still kept distance from equator. Certainly there is a deep correlations with increasing abilities of human and choosing areas to inhabit.

Image Source:
https://qed.princeton.edu/getfile.php?f=Ancient_Civilizations_of_the_Old_World_3500_to_after_600_BCE.jpg

Image Source:http://blue.utb.edu/paullgj/geog3320/lectures/map_of_ancient_civilizations.gif

How Plate tectonics influenced origin of earliest human civilizations?
The current positions of continents, landscapes, water bodies on the continents and oceans are the result of the plate tectonic activities over 4.5 billion years. It is interesting to note how plate tectonics have influenced the evolution of human civilizations. If we look to tectonics of areas where earlies human civilizations emerged, we see a close correlation between rivers flowing out from moutain chains and direct sun in arid areas, with less precipitation or with seasonal precipitations. The Collision of Indian Plante with Eurasian Plate created Himalayan mountain chian which is the source of Indus river and river valley civilization. Similarly, the Collision of Arabian Plate with Eurasian Plate created the Zagros mountain chain, Makran Mountain Chains and also Eastern Anatolian transform fault. The Eastern Anatolian Transform fault is the source of Three river systems, Aras, Euphrates and Tigris. The south flowing Tigris and Euphrates river created Euphrates valley which is the cradle of human civilization. It is not only collisions that create large mountain chains and rivers to support human civilization but divergent of plates also create valleys and river systems to support human civilization. One classic example is that of Ancient Egyptian Civilization. East African Rift has created largest lake of African continent (Lake Victoria) and longest river system on the earth, the Nile river.

East Anatolian Transform Fault (Between Arabian Plate and Anatolian Block)

Image Source:http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2003/eq_030501/neic_tgac_anaflt.gif

Image Source: http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/gifs/iran_plates.gif

Image Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/graphics/FigS8-2.gif
Northward drift of Indian Plate and Collision of with Eurasian Plate created Himalayan mountain chians.

Image Source:
http://itac.glp.net/uganda_ptc/sst/unit%209/images/The%20Eastern%20Africa%20Rift%20Valley.gif

The East African Rift is a divergent Plate boundary which is dividing the African Plate and also creating a new ocean (Along Red Sea: Red Sea is expanding and Persian Gulf is closing). East African Rift is creating several Lakes, most notably is the largest lake of African continent (Lake Victoria) and the most important river system, Nile River.

China’s geographical location: challenges and opportunities

Almost all ancient civilizations died one way or another except Chinese civilization. Archeologists search ancient Egyptian civilization in pyramids, Babylon in ruins of Babylon, Indus civilization in ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, Mehrgarh, Harappa, Lothal, ancient Persian Empire in Persepolis, and ancient Rome in ruins of Colosseum (Coliseum) and so on. Archeologists search them in ruins to reveal more details about them. The ancient civilizations have died long ago, and we need to learn about them from what left of them in the form of ruins. On the other hand, Chinese civilization is a living fossil. Chinese dynasties came and gone, form of governments changed but Chinese civilization remained intact. How was it possible? It is the miracle of Chinese geographical location.

Image source:http://www.chinapage.com/map/map.html

China’s geographical location was always attracted geographers, political and economical scientists (and also paleontologists to hunt Dinosaurs). If until modern times the Southern China Sea, the Western Mountain chains of Himalayas and North western Altai Mountain Chains and Northern Gobi deserts were protecting this civilization from foreign invaders, in modern times, each one of this geographical barrier turned into a new door of wealth and opportunities.

It is a historical agreement that China has a very favorable geography which makes it both sea power (South China Sea, Pacific Ocean, and Indian Ocean) and Land power, (Central Asia and Middle East (Through Pakistan, its key friend). China has 18000 Km long and temperate coastline, which stretches from South China Sea to Yellow Sea, Korea Bay and East China Sea. South China Sea is the largest manufacturing hub of world. China itself along with Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore are manufacturing giants of world. Indian Ocean is the home and main route of fossil. Indian Ocean is called the arc of fossil fuel and Muslim world stretching from North Africa, Middle East to Central Asia. Being in center of manufacturing and energy homes and routes has turned the coastal areas of China as a source of commerce for the China. The challenge in South China Sea is that of frequent straits. You can easily find some of these
straits like,

- Korea Strait
- Taiwan Strait
- Malacca Strait
- Makassar Strait

China’s Southwest neighbors are home of most populous but poor areas of world including Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), Laos and Vietnam. These neighbors are also turning into great asset for China’s commerce and over time the value of this asset is increasing. As China’s economy is improving so is the labor cost. China is successfully competing in free market because of cheap labor. Currently Chinese factories are shifting more towards villages in search of cheap labor. However there is a limit for cheap labor. As there is pressure on relating the value of Yuan with global economy, so these poor and populous neighbors will provide cheap labor to China and make her able to compete and dominate the global economy.

Mekong River is connecting China a very cheap transport to not only cheap labor but also vast markets. We can say that Mekong River has a strategic economic importance and will play a vital role in rise of Chinese economic empire. Mekong River is 4,350 Km long and connect six countries starts from China, Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. Changing weathers and water falls make navigation difficult in this river however, these constraints are not things that could not overcome once the labor value become key in economic competitions.

Map of Mekong River
Image Source:
http://sebrinaandjustin.andalib.com/wp-content/uploads/2006/06/Mekong%20(Medium).jpg

When it comes to neighbors on land, China faces both challenges and opportunities. Western neighbors are Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. All these western neighbors are the source of security problems for China. The instability in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Tajikistan making Chinese concerned as these instabilities may spread to China especially to Muslim Province of Xinjiang. India is also the source of big trouble for China. There are territorial disputes between India and China. India is also expanding its military might especially in Indian Ocean which is a source of fossil fuel supply to China.

Image Source: http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/images/pipemap161209.gif

Though, Western neighbors are sources of concern from security perspective, however they are great sources of economical development for China. Pakistan as main ally of China is connecting China by land to Iran and Middle East. China is building the strategic, Gwadar port in Southern Province of Baluchistan to secure fossil fuel supply, in case of trouble in Indian Ocean or South China Sea. The same is true for Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Though, India is used and projected by West to balance Chinese influence in region however, the large population of India is a promising large market for Chinese goods, so China try to have a good economic relations with India.

The most important Northwestern neighbors are two Central Asian nations of Kazakhstan, Kirgizstan. Kazakhstan is fossil fuel giant of Central Asia and Kirgizstan is connecting China to the vast gas and Oil fields of another fossil fuel giant, Turkmenistan. China is really hungry for mineral and fossil fuel and its expanding economy demands for more fossil and minerals. Central Asian nations vast reserves of minerals and fossil fuel make sure continue supply of these resources. The Kazakhstan-China oil pipeline and Turkmenistan-China gas pipeline is example of fossil fuel supply lines.

On the north China is bordered with Mongolia and Russia. Vast Plains of Mongolia and Russia with their harsh weathers are devoid of population however, vast plains of Mongolia are promising for massive cultivation and agricultural products. It just needed investment in times, demands become high to invest in vast but harsh plains. Russia is a world power that has vast energy reserves but do not enjoy the temperate coast that China possesses. These two powers rely and will rely heavily in future. Russia need access to South China Sea’s economic growths and China needs fossil fuels that Russia has.

Over time, China has taught the world some lessons including but not limiting to,

- China taught new and emerging nations that initial closer to outside world in order to build and strengthen institutions and local technologies, skills and knowledge and businesses is a success key once opened to ruthless competition of globalization.

- Both China and Russia left socialist economy to adopt a free market economy. China slow and careful transformations while keeping nation intact under central government proved more successful and fruitful. On contrast Russia’s sudden transformation along with freeing, nations part of Soviet Union proved disastrous economically, socially and in terms of security as a whole.
- There were two kinds of amphi-powers; those were ocean empires and holding posts on lands like, Pheonicia, Venice, Portuguese and Dutch and those who were land empires with controlled Sea lanes like, Athens, Rome, Muslim, Spanish, British and US empires. China’s favorable location makes it both.

- Usually the concept of globalization is of westernization. This is true for a short period of time, however on long run it is the countries with large populations like China, India, South Asian, South China Sea and South American nations that will develop the global culture and will influence global life style and standards.

- Usually people look to globalization as a world of Post Soviet period. To some extent it is true; however, it is the digitization of technologies, businesses, education and cultural exchanges that have shifted the world to a global world. It is an inevitable process.
Conclusion: China’s geographical location parallels in importance to that of her economic gains and its impacts on world.

Central Asia's changing perspectives

Background:

Central Asia is the largest landlocked region on earth and is the heart of Asia. By lying in between Russia, China, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan it is the cradle of power, economy and security. Due Soviet occupation of the area and reliance on marine routes for trade and projection of power Central Asia lived in shadows. The emergence of new states created not only change the geopolitical situation but also geo-economical situation. The vast deposits of gas, Copper and Uranium make this area an attractive region for energy hunger Europe and China. From one side emerging economy of the largest republic in the region, Kazakhstan indicate the fast growth capacity of this region however the emergence of new ethnic and ideological conflicts in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kirgizstan which stretch beyond the border of Central Asia into Afghanistan and Pakistan also show the instability of the region. It is called Central Asia because it lies in the center of Asia bordering on East to East Asia, On South to South Asia and somewhat West Asia, West to East Europe and Caspian Sea and on north to North Asia. Central Asia is mainly composed of five main countries of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kirgizstan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan.

Image Source: http://www.sairamtour.com/centralasia/CentralAsiaMap.gif

Water and ethnicity

Central Asia is not only home to landlocked countries but also to landlocked sea like Caspian Sea and Aral Sea. Adding to these two seas is the world’s Twelfth
largest lake, Lake Balkhash. This Amu Darya and Hari River is two largest rivers of this region which connect this region to Afghanistan and Iran. These two rivers and along with Syr Darya is the bloodline of this arid and semiarid region. The Fergana valley is most fertile area of this region which is irrigated by two rivers Kara and Naryn Darya which join to create Syr River. The fertility of this valley attracted Uzbeks, Tajiks and Kirgiz, three out ethnicities of the region to the valley. This ethnic diversity is one of the major sources of conflict in the region and today this valley is divided into three republics of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kirgizstan. Beside the ethnicity, the ideological and irrigating rivers are also the source of the conflicts. The effects of these conflicts can be sensed beyond Fergana valley into Afghanistan, Northwestern Part of Pakistan and also Xinjiang Province of China. In Soviet Period it was tried to solve the problem by changing the traditional multi-crop culture of into a single cash crop of the cotton and also by dividing the valley based on the ethnicities. This experiment failed and after Soviet era the valley is shifting to traditional multi-crop culture that is more sustainable. Though the geography and economy of the valley is linked however the fear of unrest makes Uzbekistan to close the border and divide the valley.

History:

Though this region is conquered by Alexander and then Han Chinese but the fame and Power of this region came through Islamic civilizations and Descendant of Genghis Khan who have adapted Islam as their religion. The famous cities of Samarkand and Bukhara were the cradle of Islamic Civilization. During Islamic Period the Turks from this region spread to neighboring areas to spread Islam. The most phenomenons are conquering India and Byzantine Empire. The Timor Lang headed his army to South and Southwest to conquer India and found the Mogul Empire in India. Also Turks from this region headed south to collapse Byzantine Empire and make it the home of Turks that is modern Turkey. Due to Turko-Mongolian and Islamic military expeditions and also geographical ties we cannot separate the Central Asia from Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Mongolia and Xinjiang province of China and so it is not wrong to include them in Central Asia. The Russian and Subsequent Soviet occupation of the region separated it from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Mongolia, Iran and Xinjiang Province and pushed this region into dark shadows of isolation.

Playground of Big Powers;

Central Asia is resuming its history of playground for big powers. Currently it is the test ground for power projections and conflicts of interests between, Russia, China, USA and possibly EU. It is not only big powers but medium powers of region like, India, Pakistan, Iran and Turkey is also trying to expand their interests and increase their influence in the region. Before 1990, the world was much safer, as West and Soviet Union was balancing each other's power. However, the world, after 1990's are going to be increasingly more politically unstable, more insecure and economically declining. The Central Asia is suffering the worst of all. Which power is going to get greater share of the influence in the region depends on the share of the power in the security, political stability and economic cooperation in the region.

Changed Perspectives of Central Asia:

Once Genghis Khan grieved by poverty of his people due to isolation and harsh weather were looking to China, Persia, India and Middle East as sources of grains, cottons, people and gold as sources of power that were scarce on the plains of Central Asia. Silk Road which were connecting these settled areas were the source of his hope to change the fate of his people. He tried to do trade with neighboring Persia and China but settled people of these areas were not ready to do trade and share their riches with poor people of Steppe, so he was forced to use his last option and that is occupy.

Since that time a lot have changed. Industrialization has changed the nature of hunger. Grains and cotton have declined in importance as energy and minderal resources got importance. This time it is not Central Asian People looking to settled areas but the settled aread looking into Central Asia for more power. Energy and mineral hungry China, Europe, Russia, India, Pakistan, Turkey, South Korea and USA is looking to vast resources of these region.

Growth Capacity;

From nature to human societies, everything has a capacity in specified time. Sure time changes the capacity as I mentioned in the previous paragraph. It is of no wonder that US, Europe and Middle East's economies are on decline. They have consumed their capacities. Unless they do not create a new space as digital technologies created immense space for growth, this decline will be there. Central Asia on the other hand remained unexploited. Its natural, geographical and human resources promise a lot of growth in this region. I can see how the focus of great players is going to increase in this region and it will bring both opportunities and conflicts in this region.
External Sources;

1. Central Asia Water conflict and Solution;
http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/water/2010/06/10/understanding-water-conflict-in-central-asia-and-solutions/
2. Central Asia on verge of conflict on water
http://en.ng.ru/energy/2008-04-08/1_water.html
3. Power Politics in Central Asia:
http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/129/5/
4. Mineral Resources of Central Asia and Europe (USGS)
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/europe.html

A response to Algeo-Scheckler’s “Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: Links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events”

A. Introduction

Before appearance of life on earth it was degassing from volcanisms, metamorphisms and weathering of silicate rocks that were regulating the carbon cycle. Volcanisms were supplying greenhouse gases like CO2 to atmosphere and weathering of Ca and Mg- Silicate rocks were drawing down CO2 from atmosphere to deposit them in form of carbonate rocks (Berner, 1983). The appearance of life on earth added biotic factor in global carbon cycle. One of the biggest events in geological history and also in evolution of Carbon cycle was the evolution of trees and seed plants which resulted in forestation and deep weathering of Silicate rocks (Beerbower et al. 1992). The forestation changed climate by working as a carbon sink and caused rapid drawdown of pCO2 that led to continental glaciations at the end of Devonian (Caputo 1985; Berner 1992, 1994). The rise of forests is correlated with widespread bottom water anoxia that was catastrophic for tropical benthos and coral reef communities (McGhee 1996). Sinking of organic matter and anoxia also resulted in deposition of Barite in Late Devonian Period (Paul, et al. 1994). The vegetative cover of land deeply affected the flow of water in terrestrial environments by strengthening of river banks, bars and changing the morphology of land. Meandering river system become more frequent as compared to prior vegetation cover of land when braided river system were dominating (Neil, et al. 2010). Prior to evolution of larger land plants in Silurian, virtually all river systems had a braided platform (Cotter 1978).

Thomas Algeo and Stephen Scheckler has recently (July, 2010) published a model to link all these events into a feedback system. Though this model covers beautifully most of the aspects of major impacts, tree evolution in a feedback system that changed both marine and terrestrial environments of Devonian Period however, this model is very brief with missing some important changes in feedback systems. There is no mention of forest fire though it was an important addition in Devonian ecosystem and perhaps climate. The rise of forests not only provided fuel but also oxygen level (more than 13%) for forest fire. A opposed to desertification, forestation was a main event that impacted the rate of evaporation and albedo. Eustatic sea level changes that many authors suggested a cause of mass extinctions in Late Devonian was totally ignored. The role of Arcadian orogeny is also totally ignored while Acadian orogeny may have played a vital role in accelerating silicate weathering of plants. All these events are important factors in marine-terrestrial teleconnections that was the main purpose of this flow chart model. Besides, Algeo-Scheckler model’s is showing that all subsequent events are related to Pedogenesis. Though Pedogenesis was an important outcome of arborescence and seed habit however we can’t overlook the roles of forestation and orogeny which were not only the main causes of Pedogenesis and silicate weathering but also had their independent role in marine-terrestrial teleconnections. For example, the landscape stabilization is shown as a result of intensified Pedogenesis while it is as a result of forestation and vegetative cover. Lastly it is needed to acknowledge the complications from parallel mechanisms for climate change and mass extinctions like orogeny, meteorite impacts and even orbital forcing of climate that is really difficult to link in distant geological time. Based on the above arguments I suggest for remodeling of this flow chart and I have redrawn it. Following is Algeo-Scheckler’s flow chart model and next to it, is my effort to amend this flow chart.

After Algeo et al, 2010

Above: Algeo-Scheckler’s flow chart model of marine-terrestrial teleconnections
Below: Redrawn flow chart model of Devonian marine-terrestrial-teleconnections

B. Discussion:

I. Physiological innovations and forestation:


During Early to middle Silurian bryophytic plants have started invading terrestrial environment. Although it was a big step in evolution of land plants however the reproductive and physiological limitations of the bryophytes kept them close to water bodies. Bryophytes are non-vascular, rootless, without stems and leafless thalloid plants that reproduce by spores (Beerbower et al. 1992). Lack of wood, kept them small and limited to wet environment so their invasion of terrestrial environments didn’t result in forestation and their role were limited in silicate weathering as product of their weathering were protosols. These physiological limitations of bryophytes limited their impacts on global carbon cycle, global climate and their role in marine-terrestrial teleconnections. It was Late Silurian and Early Devonian that vascular plants evolved and diversified (Gray, 1985). Though these land plants were small, shallowly rooted and limited to moist land areas but in Middle to Late Devonian Large trees with deep root systems like Archeopteride appeared that had colonized uplands. Algeo-Scheckler (Algeo et al, 2010) has presented artistically the evolution of vascular trees from early to late Devonian. The main innovation that led to differentiation of different plant systems (roots, branches, leaf) was appearance of wood. Raven (Raven, 2005) has pictured this phenomenon beautifully, “Scientists believe that once a lycophyte tree was stabilized by its shallow, forking, rootlike axes, it pushed rapidly skyward……”. By focusing more on impact of forestation of marine-terrestrial teleconnections, my focus will be on , a. environmental diversity of plants and on their size,

Early Devonian (Siegenian/Pragnian-Emsian) upland floodplain
After Algeo et al, 2010

Middle Devonian (Eifelian-Givetian) upland floodplain
After Algeo et al, 2010

Environmental diversity of land plants:

The range of environments that land plants have covered is key to understand the impact of their evolutionary innovations. Algeo-Scheckler’s reconstructions of environments of small, shallow rooted vascular plants in early Devonian and middle to large sized trees in Middle to Late Devonian show their environments as upland floodplains. Their reconstructions are supported by their own works on exposed beds of Franklinian Geosyncline that have exposures at High Arctic island of Canada and Famennian beds in Appalachian USA (Scheckler 1986a; Streel & Scheckler 1990). The flood plains that these trees have covered had diverse environments ranging from fluvial-deltaic to shore lines.

Scheckler (Scheckler et al, 1990) have compared the flora from meandering and braided river system and those of lowland and found that upland vegetation was similar to those of lowland but less diverse.

New York is famous for it’s in place tree stumps especially those of Gilboa village. In place tree stumps in New York regions are mostly found in Fluvial-deltaic, chiefly comprises of two formations of Plattekill and ManorKill formations which are successions of mudstone to sandstone that deposited in diverse range of environments. Bridge-Willis (Bridge et al, 1994) listed environments of Catskill formation from (i) Storm-wave-dominated muddy marine shelf with sandy shoals; (ii) sandy, tide influenced channels with wave- and tide-influenced mouth bars; (iii) sandy and muddy tidal flats, including channels, mouth bars, and washovers ; and (iv) muddy brackish bays, lakes and flood plains.

Late Devonian (Famennian) upland plain
After Algeo et al, 2010

2. Tree sizes (stem and roots)

Along with diversity of environment the size of trees and their rooting systems is another measure of impacts of evolutionary innovations. The large trunk sizes play as large reservoirs of carbon sinks and extensive rooting systems play main key role in weathering of Silicate rocks.
We see a rapid increase in trunk sizes, rooting systems and differentiation of different plant organs from simplest vascular plant of Early Devonian plants like Rhyniophytes to giant trees with extensive rooting like of Archeopterids of Late Devonian. Following I provide some representative plant assemblage of Devonian Period and also representative sizes just to show, how small plants turned into huge trees. This increase of size was a response to terrestrial environment.

i. Early Devonian assemblage:

Early Devonian plant assemblage includes Rhyniophytes, Trimerophytes and Zosterophylls. Rhyniophytes is thought to be oldest vascular plants and it is the simplest of all known vascular plants (Taylor, 1993). Rhyniophytes were small plants and they could reach the height of 30 cm (Renalia) though most of them were much shorter. Zosterophylls that are believed to be the ancestor of Lycopods could attain a height up to 50 cm (Gosslingia breconensis). Trimerophytes which were more complex than Rhyniophytes and Zosterophylls and their size could exceeds than a meter in height. Hence the plant assemblage of early Devonian was leafless with dichotomous braches ranging from few cm to a meter tall.

ii. Middle Devonian assemblage:

The Middle Devonian plant assemblage included Cladoxylalean ferns, Aneurophytes progymnosperms and Drepanophycales lycopods. Lycopods have originated from zosterophylls, had small leafs known as microphylls and most species were herbaceous. The diameter of their stem could reach 6.5 cm and leaves up to 4 cm long and they could reach to height of 50 cm tall. Cladoxylales are fern-like group of small trees; some of them (Pseudosporochnus) could reach 3 meters of height with a trunk that bore large roots and atleast three order of branches. Aneurophytes are the most primitive group (order) within progymnosperms, had three dimensional branching and their trunks from Gilboa, NY (Eospermatopteris), and is believed to 9 to 12 m tall.

iii. Late Devonian assemblage:

The Late Devonian plant assemblage included Zygopterid ferns, Archeopterids progymnosperms, Sphenophyll vines and Tree Lycopods. The elaborately frond bearing Zygopterid ferns were almost tree size as Austroclepsis from Lower Carboniferous of Australia had a trunk of 30 cm in diameter, consisting of numerous leaf bearing stems and intertwined roots. Archeopterids were large trees with extensive root system. Some specimen (Callixylon) had a woody of stem of up to 150 cm and a height exceeding 10 meters. Sphenophyll vines were small trees less than a meter and formed the understory of forests in Devonian and Carboniferous forests.

II. Forest Fire and marine-terrestrial teleconnections:

The most important point that is missing in Algeo-Schekler’s model is forest fire. Forest fire is an important event for Geology, Ecology, Climate and Paleobotany. Forest Fires could be traced by fossilized charcoal known as Fusian. Fusian are dominantly characoalified secondary wood but it may include other plant parts like leaves and seed (Scott et al, 1991) and hence they are important for Paleobotanists as they provide valuable information about the Plants that were constituted forest. Fusian is very important for paleoclimatologists because, forest fire is only possible when atmospheric oxygen level exceeds 13% and it charcoal will not form if atmospheric oxygen content exceeds that of 35% as it burn out the whole woods (Scott et al, 1991). The Fusian along with spores and megafossil may also tell the succession of trees.
Forest fire is important in marine-terrestrial teleconnections of Devonian period to explain the episodic erosional surfaces of black of Devonian. Schieber (Schieber et al al, 2004) identified four regional erosional surfaces in Chattanooga Shale. Algeo-Scheckler’s model linked the black shale to intensified Pedogenesis during Devonian Period. Though intensified Pedogenesis must have played a key role in deposition of black shale however it can’t explain the erosional surfaces of black shale because Pedogenesis was an increasingly intensifying event with evolution of trees. Erosional surfaces could be better explained by transgressive-regressive cycle, orogeny and perhaps also forest fires which are episodic and occur more frequent in hor and climate or during freuquent volcanisms. Pedogenesis, Arcadian orogeny, eustatic sea-level changes and forest fire combined provide a plausible explanation for episodic black shale deposits. Black shale basin of Late Devonian used to measure the rate of Arcadian orogeny (Ettensohn et al 1987). Black shale was deposited in foreland basin and the rate of Arcadian orogeny was exceeding 7 cm/year, so we would expect high terrigenous influx which is adding complicate linear explanation of events.

III. Forestation cover, Fluvial systems, Pedogenesis and Silicate weathering:

Though forestation was not the only big event in Devonian Period but it was the single only event that caused a series of big events of Devonian Period that were related to it like, landscape stabilization, decrease of desertification, intensified Pedogenesis, forest fire and increased O2/CO2. Appearance of root system and their rapid lateral and downward growth and anchorage not only helped in enlargement of plants to tree size but also intensification of the Pedogenesis.

Change in Fluvial Systems:

One of the most obvious impacts of forestation was the landscape stabilization. Big differences in alluvial and fluvial sedimentation and fluvial system have been reported. Davies-Gibling (Davis-Gibling et al, 2010) have compiled the case studies and made a database of subject from Cambrian to Devonian. They constructed a flow chart of feedback system showing inter-relationship of fluvial systems prior evolution of root system of terrestrial plants. It make easy to understand major changes in alluvial system and sediment characteristics after the evolution of root systems. Pre-Devonian fluvial succession characterized by lack of fine grained sediments, were dominated by bedload-dominated transport, unstable banks and flashy discharges showing braided river system characters (Schumm, 1968, Eriksson et al., 2006). Cotter reviewed (Cotter, 1978) 39 published studies on fluvial system from Precambrian to Devonian and found only two reports of pre-Silurian meandering system. Though some authors like Bridge (Bridge, 2006, p.156) has criticized this approach by Cotter however, Vandenberghe (2001, 2003) has provided more evidence on impact of vegetation on fluvial system from preglacial river systems. Whether a system adopts a meandering system or braided systems depends on patchiness of vegetation.

Flow chart of feedback loops of alluvial system prior to vegetation.
After Davies and Gibling et al, 2010

Root systems and vegetation cover of the trees and plants of forest, stabilized river banks and helped to change the dominant braided river system to increasing meandering river system.

2. Silicate Weathering and Pedogenesis:

Algeo-Scheckler (Algeo et al, 2010) have illustrated it beautifully, showing that soil penetration was shallow in Middle Devonian by less 20 cm which increased by Late Devonian to more 80 cm. Vascular plants affect silicate weathering by multiple processes, (i) acidification of soil by organic acids, (ii) increasing residence of water (iii) Increasing the depth of weathering by deep penetration of root systems.

After Algeo-Scheckler et al, 2010

The evidence for intensification of chemical weathering of silicate rocks comes from difference of sedimentation prior vegetation and after the vegetation cover. Prior to vegetation and in absence of K-chelation, K-feldspar have been more stable in terrigenous sediments (Ranganathan, 1983) and hence arkosic and to subarkosic sandstone were more common in fluvial sandstone (Hiscott et al., 1984).


IV. Eutrophication, Glaciation, Sea level variation and Mass extinction:

Due to opposing reports and disagreements among researchers about causes of Late Devonian eustatic sea-level changes and mass extinctions it is not easy to establish an acceptable mechanism for Anoxia and sea level changes and extinctions. However, the coincidence of certain events makes us able to have a general explanation. There were two extinction events in Late Devonian, the first one between Frasnian-Famennian (F-F) and second one between Devonian-Carboniferous (D-C) boundary (Sepkoski, 1996). F-F mass extinction is one of the big fives of mass extinctions (MaGhee,1996). One important aspect of this mass extinction is that most of its victims were shallow, warm-water taxa, reef taxa and pelagic taxa (Hallam and Wignall, 1997) however deep and cold water taxa survived mass extinction (McGhee, 1996).

The episodic mass extinctions as well as survival of cold, deep-water taxa make it difficult to explain the mass extinction as a result of eutrophication from increased nutrient flow as a result of Pedogenesis alone. However, eutrophication becomes a likely factor when it coincides with other processes to accelerate the process of mass killings. Some authors like Newell (Newell, 1967) and Johnson (Johnson, 1974) suggested a rapid regression was the cause of F-F mass extinction, however extinction process was started during high sea level and continued to regression during F-F mass extinction event. There are reports of two regressive-transgressive cycles during mass extinction event. Based on these two cycles Buggisch (Buggisch, 1991) provided an attractive mechanism to link eustatic sea-level changes with marine-terrestrial events to F-F mass extinction.

After Hallam-Wignall et al., 1999

The event begins with transgression which starts two simultaneous processes. Firstly, transgression floods the shelf area and makes a deep and anoxic environment which results in mass killings of benthos. Secondly, transgression bury large amount of organic carbon which initiate global cooling that triggers glaciations. Glaciations cause the sea level drops and expose the organic carbon for oxidation. The oxidation of organic carbon increase CO2 level in atmosphere which in turn results in warming and melting of ice and hence another transgression. Though this mechanism seems explains well the rapid icehouse and greenhouse cycles during F-F mass extinction however, evidences from Morocco and Poland do not show evidences for transgression and regression cycles as you can see in figure of eustatic sea level curves of the period and it is only North America and South China that support the suggested mechanism.

V. Conclusion:

Despite of somewhat contradicting evidences and explanations, the evidences for two stages mass extinctions, two cycles of eustatic sea level changes at least in large part of globe if not all the whole globe, black shale deposits, sulfide and sulfate {Barite deposits (Jewell et al., 1994)} deposits, increased Pedogenesis and change in characteristics fluvial sediments and fluvial systems show unusual conditions in Late Devonian that could be link to rise of forests. Having said that it is noteworthy that all these events were not linear and solely as a result of rise forestation but forestation played a major role to accelerate these events. Hence it is more logical to not overlook other processes during Devonian when constructing a model for marine-terrestrial teleconnections.

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